WebOb
- WebOb Reference
webob
– Request/Response objectswebob.dec
– WSGIfy decoratorwebob.static
– Serving static fileswebob.exc
– WebOb Exceptions- Differences Between WebOb and Other Systems
- WebOb File-Serving Example
- Wiki Example
- Comment Example
- JSON-RPC Example
- Another Do-It-Yourself Framework
- News
- 1.4.1 (2015-04-14)
- 1.4 (2014-05-14)
- 1.3.1 (2013-12-13)
- 1.3 (2013-12-10)
- 1.2.3
- 1.2.2
- 1.2.1
- 1.2
- 1.2rc1
- 1.2b3
- 1.2b2
- 1.2b1
- 1.2a2
- 1.2a1
- 1.1.1
- 1.1
- 1.1rc1
- 1.1b2
- 1.1b1
- 1.0.8
- 1.0.7
- 1.0.6
- 1.0.5
- 1.0.4
- 1.0.3
- 1.0.2
- 1.0.1
- 1.0
- 0.9.8
- 0.9.7.1
- 0.9.7
- 0.9.6.1
- 0.9.6
- 0.9.5
- 0.9.4
- 0.9.3
- 0.9.2
- 0.9.1
- 0.9
- 0.8.5
- 0.8.4
- 0.8.3
- 0.8.2
- 0.8.1
- 0.8
- License
Contents
Status & License
WebOb is an extraction and refinement of pieces from Paste. It is under active development. Discussion should happen on the Paste mailing lists, and bugs can go on the issue tracker. It was originally written by Ian Bicking, and is being maintained by the Pylons Project <http://www.pylonsproject.org/>.
WebOb is released under an MIT-style license.
WebOb development happens on GitHub. Development version is installable via easy_install webob==dev. You can clone the source code with:
$ git clone https://github.com/Pylons/webob.git
Introduction
WebOb provides objects for HTTP requests and responses. Specifically it does this by wrapping the WSGI request environment and response status/headers/app_iter(body).
The request and response objects provide many conveniences for parsing HTTP request and forming HTTP responses. Both objects are read/write: as a result, WebOb is also a nice way to create HTTP requests and parse HTTP responses; however, we won’t cover that use case in this document. The reference documentation shows many examples of creating requests.
Request
The request object is a wrapper around the WSGI environ dictionary. This
dictionary contains keys for each header, keys that describe the
request (including the path and query string), a file-like object for
the request body, and a variety of custom keys. You can always access
the environ with req.environ
.
Some of the most important/interesting attributes of a request object:
req.method
:- The request method, e.g.,
'GET'
,'POST'
req.GET
:- A dictionary-like object with all the variables in the query string.
req.POST
:- A dictionary-like object with all the variables in the request
body. This only has variables if the request was a
POST
and it is a form submission. req.params
:- A dictionary-like object with a combination of everything in
req.GET
andreq.POST
. req.body
:- The contents of the body of the request. This contains the entire
request body as a string. This is useful when the request is a
POST
that is not a form submission, or a request like aPUT
. You can also getreq.body_file
for a file-like object. req.cookies
:- A simple dictionary of all the cookies.
req.headers
:- A dictionary of all the headers. This is dictionary is case-insensitive.
req.urlvars
andreq.urlargs
:req.urlvars
is the keyword parameters associated with the request URL.req.urlargs
are the positional parameters. These are set by products like Routes and Selector.
Also, for standard HTTP request headers there are usually attributes,
for instance: req.accept_language
, req.content_length
,
req.user_agent
, as an example. These properties expose the
parsed form of each header, for whatever parsing makes sense. For
instance, req.if_modified_since
returns a datetime object
(or None if the header is was not provided). Details are in the
Request reference.
URLs
In addition to these attributes, there are several ways to get the URL
of the request. I’ll show various values for an example URL
http://localhost/app-root/doc?article_id=10
, where the application
is mounted at http://localhost/app-root
.
req.url
:- The full request URL, with query string, e.g.,
'http://localhost/app-root/doc?article_id=10'
req.application_url
:- The URL of the application (just the SCRIPT_NAME portion of the
path, not PATH_INFO). E.g.,
'http://localhost/app-root'
req.host_url
:- The URL with the host, e.g.,
'http://localhost'
req.relative_url(url, to_application=False)
:- Gives a URL, relative to the current URL. If
to_application
is True, then resolves it relative toreq.application_url
.
Methods
There are several methods in webob.Request
but only a few you’ll use
often:
Request.blank(base_url)
:- Creates a new request with blank information, based at the given
URL. This can be useful for subrequests and artificial requests.
You can also use
req.copy()
to copy an existing request, or for subrequestsreq.copy_get()
which copies the request but always turns it into a GET (which is safer to share for subrequests). req.get_response(wsgi_application)
:- This method calls the given WSGI application with this request, and returns a Response object. You can also use this for subrequests or testing.
Unicode
Many of the properties in the request object will return unicode
values if the request encoding/charset is provided. The client can
indicate the charset with something like Content-Type:
application/x-www-form-urlencoded; charset=utf8
, but browsers seldom
set this. You can set the charset with req.charset = 'utf8'
, or
during instantiation with Request(environ, charset='utf8')
. If
you subclass Request
you can also set charset
as a class-level
attribute.
If it is set, then req.POST
, req.GET
, req.params
, and
req.cookies
will contain unicode strings. Each has a
corresponding req.str_*
(like req.str_POST
) that is always
str
and never unicode.
Response
The response object looks a lot like the request object, though with
some differences. The request object wraps a single environ
object; the response object has three fundamental parts (based on
WSGI):
response.status
:- The response code plus message, like
'200 OK'
. To set the code without the reason, useresponse.status_code = 200
. response.headerlist
:- A list of all the headers, like
[('Content-Type', 'text/html')]
. There’s a case-insensitive dictionary-like object inresponse.headers
that also allows you to access these same headers. response.app_iter
:- An iterable (such as a list or generator) that will produce the
content of the response. This is also accessible as
response.body
(a string),response.unicode_body
(a unicode object, informed byresponse.charset
), andresponse.body_file
(a file-like object; writing to it appends toapp_iter
).
Everything else in the object derives from this underlying state. Here’s the highlights:
response.content_type
:- The content type not including the
charset
parameter. Typical use:response.content_type = 'text/html'
. You can subclassResponse
and add a class-level attributedefault_content_type
to set this automatically on instantiation. response.charset
:- The
charset
parameter of the content-type, it also informs encoding inresponse.unicode_body
.response.content_type_params
is a dictionary of all the parameters. response.request
:- This optional attribute can point to the request object associated with this response object.
response.set_cookie(key, value, max_age=None, path='/', domain=None, secure=None, httponly=False, version=None, comment=None)
:- Set a cookie. The keyword arguments control the various cookie
parameters. The
max_age
argument is the length for the cookie to live in seconds (you may also use a timedelta object). The Expires` key will also be set based on the value ofmax_age
. response.delete_cookie(key, path='/', domain=None)
:- Delete a cookie from the client. This sets
max_age
to 0 and the cookie value to''
. response.cache_expires(seconds=0)
:- This makes this response cachable for the given number of seconds,
or if
seconds
is 0 then the response is uncacheable (this also sets theExpires
header). response(environ, start_response)
: The response object is a WSGI- application. As an application, it acts according to how you
creat it. It can do conditional responses if you pass
conditional_response=True
when instantiating (or set that attribute later). It can also do HEAD and Range requests.
Headers
Like the request, most HTTP response headers are available as
properties. These are parsed, so you can do things like
response.last_modified = os.path.getmtime(filename)
.
The details are available in the extracted Response documentation.
Instantiating the Response
Of course most of the time you just want to make a response. Generally any attribute of the response can be passed in as a keyword argument to the class; e.g.:
response = Response(body='hello world!', content_type='text/plain')
The status defaults to '200 OK'
. The content_type does not
default to anything, though if you subclass Response
and set
default_content_type
you can override this behavior.
Exceptions
To facilitate error responses like 404 Not Found, the module
webob.exc
contains classes for each kind of error response. These
include boring but appropriate error bodies.
Each class is named webob.exc.HTTP*
, where *
is the reason for
the error. For instance, webob.exc.HTTPNotFound
. It subclasses
Response
, so you can manipulate the instances in the same way. A
typical example is:
response = HTTPNotFound('There is no such resource')
# or:
response = HTTPMovedPermanently(location=new_url)
You can use this like:
try:
... stuff ...
raise HTTPNotFound('No such resource')
except HTTPException, e:
return e(environ, start_response)
The exceptions are still WSGI applications, but you cannot set
attributes like content_type
, charset
, etc. on these exception
objects.
Multidict
Several parts of WebOb use a “multidict”; this is a dictionary where a
key can have multiple values. The quintessential example is a query
string like ?pref=red&pref=blue
; the pref
variable has two
values: red
and blue
.
In a multidict, when you do request.GET['pref']
you’ll get back
only 'blue'
(the last value of pref
). Sometimes returning a
string, and sometimes returning a list, is the cause of frequent
exceptions. If you want all the values back, use
request.GET.getall('pref')
. If you want to be sure there is one
and only one value, use request.GET.getone('pref')
, which will
raise an exception if there is zero or more than one value for
pref
.
When you use operations like request.GET.items()
you’ll get back
something like [('pref', 'red'), ('pref', 'blue')]
. All the
key/value pairs will show up. Similarly request.GET.keys()
returns ['pref', 'pref']
. Multidict is a view on a list of
tuples; all the keys are ordered, and all the values are ordered.
Example
The file-serving example shows how to do more advanced HTTP techniques, while the comment middleware example shows middleware. For applications it’s more reasonable to use WebOb in the context of a larger framework. Pylons uses WebOb in 0.9.7+.